Multiracial

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Actress Halle Berry was born to a white mother and a black father
Actress Halle Berry was born to a white mother and a black father

The terms multiracial and mixed-race describe people whose ancestries come from different races.

Contents

[edit] Definitions of multiraciality

See also Admixture
Golfer Tiger Woods is 1/2 Asian, 1/4 black, 1/8 white, and 1/8 Amerindian
Golfer Tiger Woods is 1/2 Asian, 1/4 black, 1/8 white, and 1/8 Amerindian

According to Michael Levin, most people can be clearly identified as belonging to one race or another, meaning that most people can trace at least 75% of their ancestors to the same geographic region associated with a major racial group; however, Levin insists that anyone with fewer than 75% of their ancestors originating from the same broad geographic region should be considered multiracial:

Hybrid populations with multiple lines of descent are to be characterized in just those terms: as of multiple descent. Thus, American Negroids are individuals most of whose ancestors from 15 to 5000 generations ago were sub-Saharan African. Specifying 'most' more precisely in a way that captures ordinary usage may not be possible.'> 50%' seems too low a threshold; my sense is that ordinary attributions of race begin to stabilize at 75%. An individual, half of whose ancestors are East Asian and half Caucasian, is to be categorized as just that, of half northeast Asian and half Caucasian ancestry. Nothing in continental cladistics precludes mixed ancestry, any more than the concept of a breed of dog excludes mixtures[1].

Meanwhile the company DNAPrint Genomics analyzes DNA to determine the exact percentage of European, sub-Saharan, East Asian, and Native American heritage someone has and assigns the to the categories White, Black, East Asian, Native American, or mixed race accordingly. According to U.S. sociologist Troy Duster and ethicist Pilar Ossorio:

Some percentage of people who look white will possess genetic markers indicating that a significant majority of their recent ancestors were African. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European.[2]

See also: Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

In the United States:

"Many state and local agencies comply with the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 1997 revised standards for the collection, tabulation, and presentation of federal data on race and ethnicity. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five racial categories: White; Black or African American; American Indian and Alaska Native; Asian; and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Perhaps, the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to mark one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity. Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races."[3]

[edit] Words for this concept, including from other languages, used in English

In the English-speaking world many terms for people of various multiracial descents exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato and mestizo are used in Spanish and métis in French for people of multiracial descent, and these terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are a people of mixed white and First Nation descent.

Terms like "mulatto" for people of partly African descent and "mestizo" for people of partly Native American descent are still used in English, but mostly when referring to the past or to the demography of Latin-America. "Half-breed" is a now old-fashioned and pejorative term used for people of partial Native American ancestry. Mestee, once widely used, is now used mostly for members of old mixed-race groups, such as Melungeons, Redbones, Brass Ankles and Mayles. In South Africa, and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term "Coloured" was used to describe a mixed-race person but also Asians not of African descent[citation needed]. While the term is socially accepted, it is becoming an outdated term owing to its apartheid historical significance.

In English, the terms "miscegenation and "amalgamation" have been used for "race-mixing". These terms are now often considered offensive and are becoming obsolete. The term "mixed-race" is becoming generally accepted.

[edit] Different societies

[edit] Latin America

Jamaican reggae and dancehall artist Sean Paul's father is a Sephardic Jew of Portuguese descent, and his mother is of Afro-Caribbean and Chinese-Jamaican descent
Jamaican reggae and dancehall artist Sean Paul's father is a Sephardic Jew[4] of Portuguese descent, and his mother is of Afro-Caribbean and Chinese-Jamaican descent

Mestizo is the common word used to describe multiracial people in Latin America, especially people with Amerindian and Spanish or other European ancestry. Mestizos make up a large portion of Latin Americans including a majority in some countries.

In Latin America, racial mixture was officially acknowledged from colonial times. There was official nomenclature for every conceivable mixture present in the various countries. Initially, this classification was used as a type of caste system, where rights and privileges were accorded depending on one's official racial classification. Official caste distinctions were abolished in many countries of the Spanish-speaking Americas as they became independent of Spain. Several terms have remained in common usage.

Race and racial mixture have played a significant role in the politics of many Latin American countries. In some countries, notably Mexico, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Panama, and Belize, a majority of the population can be described as biracial or multiracial (depending on the country).

The Mexican philosopher and educator José Vasconcelos authored an essay on the subject, La Raza Cósmica, celebrating racial mixture. Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, who is himself of Spanish, indigenous and African ancestry, has made positive references to the mixed-race ancestry of most Latin Americans from time to time.

[edit] Brazil

According to the 2000 official census, 38.5% of Brazilians identified themselves as pardo skin color[5]. That option is normally marked by people that consider themselves multiracial (mestiço). The term pardo is formally used in the official census but is not used by the population. In Brazilian society, most people who are multiracial call themselves moreno: light-moreno or dark-moreno. These terms are not considered offensive and focus more on skin color than on ethnicity (it is considered more like other human characteristics such as being short or tall.).

The most common multiracial groups are between African and European (mulato), and Amerindian and European (caboclo or mameluco). But there are also African and Amerindian (cafuzo), and East-Asian (mostly Japanese) and European (ainocô). All groups are more or less found throughout the whole country. Most Brazilian multiracials, however, have three origins: Amerindian, European and African.

Since multiracial relations in Brazilian society have occurred for many generations, today, some people find it difficult to trace their own ethnic ancestry. There is a high level of integration between all groups. There is, however, a great social and economic difference between European descendants (found more among the upper and middle classes) and African, Amerindian and multiracial descendants (found more among the middle and lower classes).

[edit] South Africa

In South Africa, the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act prohibited marriage between whites and non-whites (which were classified as Black, Asian and Coloured). Multiracial South Africans are commonly referred to as coloureds. According to the 2001 South African Census, they are the second largest minority (8.9%) after white South Africans (9.2%).

[edit] Singapore

According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom Eurasians and other groups formed 2.4%.

[edit] The Philippines

There has been Chinese presence in the Philippines since the ninth century. Large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10% have some Chinese ancestry and 2% are "full-blooded" Chinese.

Filipinos with a mix of Spanish ancestry, Spanish mestizos, are particularly visible in show business. Some leaders in Philippine business and commerce are also of Spanish descent.

[edit] United Kingdom

Main article: British Mixed-Race

In 2000, The Sunday Times reported that "Britain has the highest rate of interracial relationships in the world".[6] The 2001 census showed the population of England (a sub-section of the UK) to be 1.4% mixed-race, compared with US estimates of 1.4% in 2002 (see below), although this US figure did not include mixed-race people who had a black parent. Also, as most of the British population is white), there are fewer opportunities for interracial relationships in the UK compared to the US. Notwithstanding, it can be calculated that 14.4% of English residents not identified as white are of mixed race, compared with 7.5% in the US.

In Britain, many multi-racial people have Caribbean, African or Asian heritage. Some, like Formula One driver, Lewis Hamilton, are referred to or describe themselves as 'black'. The majority of mixed-race Britons identified themselves as 'mixed race' on the 2001 census[citation needed]. Many Britons have varying amounts of Welsh, Scottish, Irish or even Italian heritage, but essentially have the same broad white or European racial background. Thus the correct term for such people is 'mixed ethnicity', rather 'mixed race'[citation needed].

The 2001 UK Census included a section entitled Mixed to which 1.4% (1.6% by 2005 estimates) of people responded, which was split further into White and Black Caribbean, White and Black African and Other Mixed.

Cities/ Regions with notable Multiracial/ Mixed Race populations

[edit] Canada

Multiracial Canadians in 2006 totalled 1.5% of the population, up from 1.2% in 2001. The mixed-race population grew by 25% since the previous census. Of this, the most frequent combinations were multiple visible minorities (for example, both black and South Asian), followed closely by white-black, white-Latin American, white-Chinese and many other smaller mixes[7].

Another 1.2% of Canadians are Métis (descendants of a historical population who were partially Aboriginal and European, particularly French, Scottish, and Irish ethnic groups. see also Métis people (Canada)

This brings a total mixed population of up to 3%, greater by percentage than that of the United Kingdom and the United States.

[edit] United States

[edit] Stereotypes

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Decathlete Bryan Clay was born to a black father and a Japanese mother
Decathlete Bryan Clay was born to a black father and a Japanese mother

Historically while society officially frowned on racial mixing, a considerable amount went on, especially as the planter class took advantage of power relationships with enslaved women. After the Civil War, southern states tried to cover up their hypocrisy by requiring physical segregation of the races in public spaces. As if projecting the behavior of their own men, white communities regularly rallied around issues of alleged assaults to white women by black men.

The insistence on a binary division of society into two races, when everyone could see shades of color, created particular stresses for those who had been free people of color before the war and had often achieved education and some economic stability. Charles W. Chesnutt was one of the authors who explored issues for multiracial people in the South.

"Multiracial characters have often been depicted as 'Wild Half-Castes', sexually destructive antagonists explicitly or implicitly perceived as unable to control the instinctive urges of their non-white heritage." Shows portray multiracials as the "'half-breed' predator... [and] 'halfbreed' temptress [these] perpetuates the association of multiraciality with sexual aberration and violence. Another recurring stereotype is the 'Tragic Mulatto', a typically female character who tries to pass for white but finds disaster when her non-white heritage is revealed... [T]he 'Half Breed Hero' provides a more 'empowering' stereotype... the 'Half Breed Hero' seemingly inspires identification as he actively resists white racism."[8] This assessment is related to a historical view of multiracial characters as portrayed in fiction and early movies. It is not typical of late 20th century portrayals.

[edit] History

There has been a long history in the United States of multiracialism. Researchers discovered that most of the African Americans free in colonial Virginia were descended not from unions between white planters and enslaved women, but from marriages and relationships between white women, servant or free, and African or African American men, servant, free or slave. Some Africans were freed as early as the 17th century. Many of those free people of color migrated to the frontiers of Virginia and North Carolina, together with other settlers. Some managed to acquire property and get a substantial start in building social capital for their families before the Civil War.

In 1789 Olaudah Equiano, a former slave turned abolitionist, published his autobiography, which advocated interracial marriage between whites and blacks.[9] One of the most famous and controversial was the relationship between Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, who was said to have borne several multiracial children by him.

In 1790, the first population census enumerators were asked to classify free residents as white or "other." Slaves were counted separately. By 1860, the census requested that residents be classified as white, black, or mulatto. Although by the late 20th century, multi-racialism was becoming more acknowledged in the U.S., it was not until 1967 that miscegenation laws were ruled unconstitutional, most famously in the Supreme Court case, Loving v. Virginia.[10]

By 1990, there were more than a dozen more ethnic/racial categories on the census, reflecting not only changing social ideas about ethnicity, but the expanded regions of the world from which immigrants were arriving after changes to immigration laws in the 1960s. In a United States in which racial mixing has been increasingly acknowledged and society is becoming more diverse, identifying oneself by just one category has been difficult. The Census Bureau changed its data collection by allowing people to check off more than one classification when identifying their ancestry.

The proportion of multiracial children in the United States is growing. Interracial partnerships are on the rise, as are transracial adoptions. In 1990, about 14% of 18- to 19-year-olds, 12% of 20- to 21-year-olds and 7% of 34- to 35-year-olds were involved in interracial relationships (Joyner and Kao, 2005)[11].

[edit] Identity

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Given the variety of the familial and more general social environments in which multiracial children are raised, along with the diversity of their appearance (vis-a-vis their component races and their family members), it can be difficult to make generalizations about multiracial children's challenges or opportunities. The racial social identity of children and that of their parents in the same multiracial family may vary or be the same[12]. Some multiracial children feel pressure from various sources to "choose" or to assimilate into a single racial identity, while others whose identity or lifestyle is perceived to be closer to some of their component races than others may feel pressure not to abandon one or more of their ethnicities. Many other have chosen to create a whole new type of racial category as in the case of Tiger Woods, who has claimed this he is not just an African American but Cablinasian, a mixture of Caucasian, African, Indian (Native American), and Asian.[13] Still other children grow up without race being a significant issue in their lives. "[B]eing multiracial can still be problematic. Most constructions of race in America revolve around a peculiar institution known as the 'one-drop rule' ... The one-drop conceit shapes both racism—creating an arbitrary 'caste'—and the collective response against it. To identify as multiracial is to challenge this logic, and consequently, to fall outside both camps."[14] "[M]any monoracials do view a multiracial identity as a choice that denies loyalty to the oppressed racial group. We can see this issue enacted currently over the debate of the U.S. census to include a multiracial category- some oppressed monoracial groups believe this category would decrease their numbers and 'benefits.'"[15] "'Many students who called themselves "half-Asian/Black/etc." came to college in search of cultural knowledge but found themselves unwelcome in groups of peers that were 'whole' ethnicities.' (Renn, 1998) She found that as a result of this exclusion on campuses designed to accommodate monoracial individuals, many multiracial students expressed the need to create and maintain a self-identified multiracial community on campus. This is due in part to the fact that multiracial people may identify more with each other, because 'they share the experience of navigating campus life as multiracial people,' (Renn, 1998) than with their own ethnic groups. This is true in spite of the fact that these multiracial individuals may all have completely different heritages."[16]

[edit] African Americans

In the United States genetic research published in 2002 established that African Americans were a diverse "multiracial" group in the broadest sense. Nearly all African Americans were descended from both sub-saharan Africans and Europeans.[17]. African Americans can be classed into two types for genetic purposes, based on ancestry: those who are "mostly African" (less than 25% European) and those who are "mostly mixed" ("over 25% European").

According to newer and more advanced genetic research, African Americans fall primarily into the first group with 80% of the population being "mostly African". Twenty percent has more than 25% European ancestry, reflecting long history of both groups in the US. The "mostly African" group is substantially African, as 70% of African Americans in this group have less than 15% European ancestry. Since almost all have some detectable amount of European ancestry, the "mostly African" group is multiracial in the broad sense. African Americans in the "mostly mixed" group are almost entirely between 25% and 50% European. These findings confirm that African Americans are indeed a multiracial, ethno-racial community.[18].

[edit] Passing

In the United States, passing is a term for person whose ancestry is in part that of the dominant group with some ancestry of a subordinate group, but who is seen as only being part of the majority group.

"...[P]assing as white" is difficult to explain in other countries or to foreign students. Typical questions are: "Shouldn't Americans say that a person who is passing as white is white, or nearly all white, and has previously been passing as black?" or "To be consistent, shouldn't you say that someone who is one-eighth white is passing as black?... A person who is one-fourth or less American Indian or Korean or Filipino is not regarded as passing if he or she intermarries and joins fully the life of the dominant community, so the minority ancestry need not be hidden... It is often suggested that the key reason for this is that the physical differences between these other groups and whites are less pronounced than the physical differences between African blacks and whites, and therefore are less threatening to whites... when ancestry in one of these racial minority groups does not exceed one-fourth, a person is not defined solely as a member of that group."[19]

[edit] Upbringing

In an article about mixed-race children having identity problems, Charlotte Nitary states:

"Wardle (1989) says that today, parents assume one of three positions as to the identity of their interracial children. Some insist that their child is 'human above all else' and that race or ethnicity is irrelevant, while others choose to raise their children with the identity of the parent of color. Another growing group of parents is insisting that the child have the ethnic, racial, cultural and genetic heritage of both parents."[20]

The mixed-race US Presidential candidate Barack Obama (who has a white mother, Kenyan father, Indonesian stepfather and largely grew up in Hawaii) has attributed his past marijuana abuse to his ancestry, declaring that this was to "push questions of who I was out of my mind"[1]

[edit] Re-marriage of women with multiracial children

"Women with children, especially biracial children, have fewer chances for remarriage than childless women. And because the children of a divorce tend to remain with the mothers, becoming incorporated into new families as the mother remarry, interracial children are more threatening markers of race and racial authenticity for families in which race matters."[21].

[edit] Census 2000

"To many mainline civil rights groups, the new census is part of a multiracial nightmare. After decades of framing racial issues in stark black and white terms, they fear that the multiracial movement will break down longstanding alliances, weakening people of color by splintering them into new subgroups."[22].

Eurasian person.
Eurasian person.

Some multiracial individuals feel marginalized by U.S. society. For example, when applying to schools or for a job, or when taking standardized tests, Americans are sometimes asked to check boxes corresponding to race or ethnicity. Typically, about five race choices are given with the instruction to "check only one." Many other such surveys include an additional "other" box, but this unfortunately groups together individuals of many different multiracial types (ex: European Americans/African-Americans are grouped with Asian/Native American Indians).

The 2000 US Census in their write-in response category has a code listing which standardizes the placement of various write-in responses for automatic placement within the framework of the US Census' enumerated races. Whereas most responses can be distinguished as falling into one of the five enumerated races, there remains some write-in responses which fall into the "Mixture" heading which can't be racially categorized. These include, "Bi Racial, Combination, Everything, Many, Mixed, Multi National, Multiple, Several and Various"[23].

In 1997, Greg Mayeda, a Board of Directors person for the Hapa Issues Forum, attended a meeting regarding the new racial classifications for the 2000 US Census. He was arguing against a multiracial category and for multiracial people being counted as all of their races. He argued that a "separate Multiracial Box does not allow a person who identifies as mixed race the opportunity to be counted accurately. After all, we are not just mixed race. We are representatives of all racial groups and should be counted as such. A stand alone Multiracial Box reveals very little about the person checking it."[24].

There remain many circumstances in which biracial individuals are left with no real response when asked for demographic data. But multiracial people won a victory of sorts after years of effort when in 1997, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) changed the federal regulation of racial categories to permit multiple responses, resulting in a new format for the 2000 United States Census, which allowed participants to select more than one of the six available categories, which were, in brief: "White," "Black or African American," "Asian," "American Indian or Alaskan Native," "Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander," and "Other." Further details are given in the article: Race (US Census). The OMB made its directive mandatory for all government forms by 2003.

[edit] Legislation

"Until a change in policy in 1989, biracial babies with a white parents were assigned the racial status of the nonwhite parent... Before 1989 biracial children faced hypodescent laws that positioned them in the non-white racial group, thus barring their entrance into the white race, though they may not necessarily have been welcomed within the other racial/ethnic group with open arms.'"[15] "The National Association of Black Social Workers has influenced the American court system by arguing that biracial children should be treated as completely black.[20] Consistent with this view, courts and adoption agencies usually categorize biracial children as black when considering placement. The primary justification for this treatment is that, in the eyes of American society, a biracial child is black and, therefore, must identify positively with being black and must be able to cope with discrimination toward her as a black person[20]... As a result, the NABSW concludes that when an adoption or custody proceeding concerns a biracial child, a court or adoption agency should favor placing the child with Black parents." [20]

[edit] Types of mixed-race people

Africa-origin

American-origin

Asian-origin

European-origin

Other types

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Levin, Michael (2002). "The Race Concept: A Defense". Behavior and Philosophy 30: 21–42. Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies. ISSN 1053-8348. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  2. ^ http://www.racesci.org/in_media/canadian_police.htm[dead link]
  3. ^ "2000 Census of Population and Housing". U. S. Census Bureau. State of New Jersey Workforce New Jersey Public Information Network. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  4. ^ Westbrook, Caroline (2004-02-13). "Sean Paul". Something Jewish. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  5. ^ "Censo Demográfico 2000" (in Portuguese). Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  6. ^ John Harlow, The Sunday Times (London), 9 April 2000, quoting Professor Richard Berthoud of the Institute for Social and Economic Research
  7. ^ "Population Groups (28) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data". 2006 Census: Data Products. Statistics Canada (2008-06-12). Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  8. ^ Pak, Greg. "Mulattoes, Half-Breeds, and Hapas: Multiracial Representation in the Movies", Matters of Race, PBS. Retrieved on 2008-07-21.
  9. ^ "Campaigners From History: Olaudah Equiano". Anti-Slavery International (2007). Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
  10. ^ PBS (May 1999). "Jefferson’s Blood: Mixed Race America". WGBH Educational Foundation. Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
  11. ^ Lang, Susan S. (2005-11-02). "Interracial relationships are on the increase in U.S., but decline with age, Cornell study finds". Chronicle Online. Cornell University. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  12. ^ "Thandie Newton - Actress". Mixed-Race Celebrities. Intermix. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  13. ^ Johnson, Kevin R. (August 2000). "Multiracialism: The Final Piece of the Puzzle". How Did You Get to Be Mexican, A White/Brown Man's Search for Identity. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  14. ^ Leland, John; Beals, Gregory (2008-02-01). "In Living Colors", Newsweek. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
  15. ^ a b Yuen Thompson, Beverly (2006). The Politics of Bisexual/Biracial identity: A Study of Bisexual and Mixed Race Women of Asian/Pacific Islander Descent, Reprint, Snakegirl Press. ISBN 1-23456-789-0. Retrieved on 2008-07-18. at p. 26
  16. ^ Thiphavong, Chris. "Recognizing the Legitimacy of Multiracial Individuals Through Hapa Issues Forum and the UCLA Hapa Club". UCLA Hapa Club. Retrieved on 2008-07-26.
  17. ^ Chao, Tian; Hinds, David A.; Shigeta, Russell; Kittles, Rick; Ballinger, Dennis G.; Seldin, Michael F. (2006-08-15). "A Genomewide Single-Nucleotide–Polymorphism Panel with High Ancestry Information for African American Admixture Mapping". American Journal of Human Genetics 79 (4): 640–9. doi:10.1086/507954. ISSN 0002-9297. PMID 16960800. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
  18. ^ Collins-Schramm, Heather E.; Kittles, Rick A.; Operario, Darwin J.; Weber James L.; Criswell, Lindsey A.; Cooper, Richard S.; Seldin, Michael F. (December 2002). "Markers that discriminate Between European and African Ancestry show Limited Variation Within Africa". Human Genetics 111 (6): 566–9. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/s00439-002-0818-z. ISSN 0340-6717. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
  19. ^ Davis, F. James. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition", Frontline, PBS. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
  20. ^ a b c d Nitardy, Charlotte (2008-05-14). "Identity Problems in Biracial Youth". University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  21. ^ Root, Maria P. P.. Love's Revolution: Interracial Marriage. Temple University Press, 202. ISBN 1566398266. Retrieved on 2008-07-14. at p. 138
  22. ^ Rodriguez, Cindy (2000-12-16). "The US Census now recognizes multiracial entries", Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved on 2008-07-14.
  23. ^ "Census 1990: Ancestry Codes". University of Michigan. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
  24. ^ Tate, Eric (1997-07-08). "Multiracial Group Views Change to Census as a Victory". The Multiracial Activist. Retrieved on 2008-07-18.

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiracial"